4 Alexis Carter – Animals, Anthropocentrism, and the Poetry of Robert Hayden

Animals, Anthropocentrism, and the Poetry of Robert Hayden 

Animal imagery is an important part of many literary works and contributes to the meaning of those works in various ways. The treatment of animals in literature is often used to create symbolic representations of current social issues. Robert Hayden uses animal and eco-centric themes in several of his works as metaphors to illustrate the lasting societal and ecological impacts of various human behaviors and treatments of both the natural world and each other. By using animals as the subjects of his poems, Hayden conveys the reflexive consequences that humanity has inflicted upon itself through the mistreatment of other living beings and the natural world in which we live. “A Plague of Starlings”, “Killing the Calves”, and “Butterfly Piece” are three poems that utilize animal-centric themes to illustrate the impact of humanity’s mistreatment and disregard for nature and each other.  This paper will utilize Animal Studies and New Criticism approaches to elucidate the themes of anthropocentrism and human cruelty represented in these three poems as they relate specifically to ecological and social issues.

Hayden’s portrayal of animals in each of these poems is a mechanism for the indictment of humanity for its gross lack of respect for nature and the idea that animals are less important than humans, in general. Animal Studies relies upon the concept of anthropocentrism which is defined as a philosophical belief that “regards humans as separate from and superior to nature” and that all other life “may justifiably be exploited for the benefit of humankind” (Boslaugh). The primary goal of Animal Studies theory is to expose the apathetic attitudes expressed by many humans in regard to the mistreatment of animals and the natural world. It also indicates a sense of entitlement in the treatment of nature’s resources, in general. In the article “Tragedy, Ecophobia, and Animality in the Anthropocene” Bryan Deyo examines a variety of classic literary works to formulate the theory that anthropocentrism is rooted in the idea that humans have rejected their animalistic identities out of a sense of both superiority to animals as well as a sense of fear of being seen and treated like the animals to whom they feel superior (195). This sense of superiority to animals as well as the idea that humans are threatened by their presence is exposed in all three of Hayden’s works being examined. By utilizing a dispassionate narrator in each poem Hayden creates a form of satirical commentary on the human mistreatment of animals. The social implications of these anthropocentric ideals can be further interpreted to reveal a deeper sense of superiority and fear between dominant and marginalized groups of humans. A sense of sympathy for those being mistreated is achieved through the use of poetic devices that paint a raw, unflinching portrait of the horrors being perpetrated as a result of anthropocentric beliefs.

Hayden’s satirical use of anthropomorphism in his poetry inspires a sense of connectedness and sympathy between humans and the animals who have been mistreated and marginalized as a result of their devaluation by others. Similarly, in the chapter titled, “Bands of Mercy” from the book British Hymns for Children, 1800-1900: Re-Tuning the History of Childhood, Dr. Alisa Clapp-Itnyre states that Victorian Era hymns attempted to create sympathy for animals by “anthropomorphizing animals to prove to children that animals were not very different from themselves” (220). Where Dr. Clapp-Itnyre’s chapter focuses on the benefits of sympathy for other living creatures, Hayden’s poetry focuses on the consequences of suppressing these sympathies. Although the methods are oppositional, the end result is the same – a realization that animals, and by extension other marginalized groups, are equally as deserving of respect as those who have claimed authority over them.

Written during the Civil Rights Movement, while Hayden was a professor at Fisk University, a prestigious African American University in Tennessee, “A Plague of Starlings” represents the fear felt both by those in power and those whom they seek to control. Labeling the starlings as a “Plague” in the title is the first suggestion of the anthropocentric idea that humans are superior to the birds and sets the tone for the rest of the poem as a remark on the assumed superiority of one group over another. Plagues represent times of uncertainty and fear for humans. The idea that they may be overcome by an unwelcome and untreatable disease can cause some humans to take extreme measures in order to protect themselves from infection. This initial labeling of the starlings suggests that humans are not only annoyed by the birds but are also fearful of their continued presence, perhaps due to the potential negative impact that they may have on the land that the humans have claimed as their own.

The birds are described as “noisy and befouling” and something that must be dealt with (lines 6-7). This word choice is indicative of the perceived importance of one group of living creatures over another, less dominant, group. The birds have lowered the value of the geographic area simply by existing in that space with the humans. The assonance of the words “terror” and “breaking” and the alliteration of “scissoring” and “spilling” all convey the idea that the birds are overwhelmed with fear of the situation that the humans have created (8-10). The consonance of the words “spared”, “spoiled”, and “choiceless” as well as the alliteration in the description of the magnolia tree as a “dangerous dwelling” indicate the conditions under which the birds now live (lines 16, 18, 19, 20-21). The survivors no longer have a safe home, but they also have nowhere else to go. They must stay in a dangerous place or risk death in an effort to fly away through the “piercing dark” another purposeful word choice that indicates impending and unknown danger (line 23). Being labeled as “choiceless poor” highlights the fact that the starlings have been forced by the humans into a state of poverty from which they cannot escape (line 19). They have been made poorer because the value of their flock has been diminished by the death of their mates. The use of fear to exert control over a marginalized group represented in this interaction is mirrored in the racially motivated treatment of minorities at the time.

Hayden uses the dispassionate narrator in the poem as a satirical commentary on the tendency toward acceptance of the presumed superiority of one group over another. The narrator must avoid treading on “death’s / black droppings” and he does so without a second consideration of the lives that have been lost, other than to suggest that their deaths are an inconvenience to him (lines 26-27). This can be interpreted as a remark on society’s general acceptance of the mistreatment of a group deemed less valuable than the one in power. Hayden uses irony in the form of the narrator’s intent to teach his students about Socrates’ deathbed argument for the idea of a soul’s ability to migrate after death to a happier place, untouched by the evil of life (Fenner). The irony lies not only in the fact that the birds were likely trying to migrate to a more suitable location when they were killed, but also that, in some perverse way, their deaths are acceptable because their souls may now find a more welcoming home. This is representative of the twisted reasoning often used by those in power to justify their atrocious actions against those they wish to control.

Using Animal Studies to analyze this poem reveals the anthropocentric notion that humans are superior to animals. Rather than first trying a less violent method to get the birds to relocate, the humans resort straight to killing the starlings for nothing more than existing in the same space as them and acting like birds. Despite the fact that the starlings would likely have only remained on the university grounds for a brief period of time, the humans inhabiting the grounds viewed their presence as an invasion and opted to murder the birds out of a sense of entitlement. The humans justify their actions based on the belief that one living being holds more intrinsic value than another. The resulting decision is that the birds’ lives are less valuable than the relative comfort of the humans with whom they temporarily share space. This devaluation of life is evident in the description of the birds as “troublesome” despite the fact that they were likely migrating through that geographic area for many years before the humans arrived (line 30).

The bird carcasses are also representative of the way that humans treat the natural world. The birds are littering the ground, which could be interpreted as a symbol for global ecological destruction caused by human carelessness and wastefulness. Once the birds have been murdered for the appeasement of only a few humans, their corpses are left where they fall, becoming problematic for everyone. Despite this blatant act of cruelty, no one seems to feel that the birds are important enough, even in death, to be acknowledged and instead, they simply avoid the bodies. Even the narrator, who at first appears to be sympathetic to the birds, ultimately does nothing to help them. Brian Deyo makes the point that to counter this attitude of anthropocentrism, humans must first acknowledge, “what it is to be a sentient, vulnerable, and perhaps most agonizingly, mortal animal” essentially accepting that humans and animals are equally deserving of respect (Deyo 204). The humans in the poem seem to have forgotten, or perhaps have never considered this perspective on the value of life.

Hayden’s treatment of the starlings in this poem adds to this point by reflecting the violence perpetrated towards African Americans and the subsequent willful ignorance of the problem by white Americans. During the Civil Rights Movement, when the poem was written, African Americans were viewed as having less intrinsic value than white people and were treated with a similar disregard as the starlings in the poem. Ultimately, the humans in the poem create a more permanent problem by killing the birds than if they had been tolerant and accepting of the fact that all living things deserve to be valued and respected. Similarly, the problem of racism was an obvious social concern that was blatantly ignored by the group of people in power. Where Hayden’s narrator literally must avoid stepping on the black birds, white Americans were figuratively doing the same by actively ignoring the cruel treatment of African Americans and their communities.  From an ecocritical perspective, the theme of this poem is that hatred and mistreatment of any living being contribute to the degradation of the world in which we live.

“Killing the Calves” was published sometime between 1978 and 1982 and uses the mass murder of innocent animals possibly as a metaphor for and commentary on the genocide of hundreds of thousands of Cambodian citizens at the hands of the Khmer Rouge between 1975 and 1979 (Cambodia). The theme of violence perpetrated against innocence is evident throughout the poem, starting with the title. The fact that Hayden uses calves as his subjects rather than adult cattle brings forth the notion of the death of innocence – represented by the juvenile calves. This can be interpreted in two distinct ways: the literal death of young innocent creatures, and the figurative death of societal innocence at the hands of those in power.

Opening with the word “Threatened”, Hayden conveys a sense of fear from the very start of the poem (line 1). The ranchers are afraid of the impact that an overabundance of cattle will have on them, personally. The alliteration of the words “calves”, “calculation”, and “cost” implies a significance of the calves to the ranchers but only in terms of potential profit. The lives of the calves are otherwise superfluous to the ranchers, and their deaths are meaningless beyond the increase of value they bring to those left living. An opposing use of alliteration in the words “squandered”, “starving”, and “save” suggests the dual perspectives within the poem (lines 5, 6, 7). The ranchers are focused only on profits and the control of those calves whose lives they have deemed to be important in terms of personal benefit. Their actions cost lives, but do not save lives. Hayden’s personification of the calves as in “terror” and “bawling” elicits sympathy through an implied comparison to human babies (lines 3, 5). Later, however, the comparison of certain groups of people to “superfluous animals” to be “slaughtered” not only counters this sympathy, but it also implies the unequal value placed on the lives of those who hold power in comparison with those who are marginalized (lines 11, 13). By this interpretation, the ranchers assume that they are superior to the calves, and their satisfaction and comfort holds more value than the comfort of the calves.

Anthropocentrism is conveyed in this poem by Hayden’s dispassionate narrator who establishes a hierarchy using the calves and other humans as rungs in the ladder of importance. At the top of the hierarchy are the ranchers who determine the intrinsic value of the calves and decide how many must die before their value increases to a satisfactory level. The fact that the cattle are living, breathing, sentient beings has no bearing on the decision of the ranchers to shoot them. This is indicative of the attitude that animals are less important and therefore deserve less respect than humans. The exception to this idea in the poem seems to be that the ranchers care even less about “the starving/whom their dying will not save” meaning that the calves have more value to the ranchers than the people who would benefit from the food that the, now slaughtered, calves might provide (lines 6-7). Essentially, the ranchers have turned the innocent calves into weapons against an already marginalized demographic to further secure their power over those they see as inferior. The only group that benefits from the deaths of the calves are the ranchers, and the group that perhaps suffers the most is not the cattle, but the humans who are dying of starvation despite the surplus of food sources. The implication that the suffering of the humans due to the death of the calves is greater than that of the animals who are being murdered is also suggestive the belief in human superiority over animals. The comparison of people to “superfluous animals” highlights the dangerous ideology of anthropocentrism that one group of living beings is entitled to hold mastery over all other groups of living beings and to treat them as essentially worthless (line 11). The fact that animals are considered superfluous by some humans also lends itself to Deyo’s assertion that “anthropocentric systems of thought have a way of alienating us, not only from nonhuman animals but from a visceral, deeply felt sense of our own animality” (205). The ranchers have forgotten that they are also animals and are not so different from those they have harmed.

 Hayden takes the idea of anthropocentrism a step further by illuminating the devastation caused when one group is allowed to determine the value of another group based on the amount of profit that may be gained or lost through that group’s survival. The description of the deaths of the calves as “’ quick and clean’” suggests that there is a method of murder that humans find more acceptable than others (line 8). The fear and horror caused by the murder, however, is not lessened by its method.  Hayden then compares the treatment of the calves to the mass murder of groups of people seen as inferior by those in power. The further implication in this poem is that the murder of those marginalized groups is a fear-response by those in power. If those who have been suppressed and impoverished are allowed to grow in number, they may decide to take power for themselves and treat their abusers in the same manner as they have been treated. Using the impactful nature of poetry Hayden elucidates the raw horror of the atrocities that humans are capable of both to animals and each other by cutting out the fluff and placing the horror in the spotlight. A similarity can be drawn between the tyrannical leaders responsible for the mass murders of marginalized groups, such as the Jewish and African populations during the Holocaust as well as the Cambodian people during their civil war against the Khmer Rouge, and the ranchers in the poem. The ranchers feel that they are in some way superior to not only the animals but also to other humans, and because of this, they feel justified in their decision to murder those who are not capable of defending themselves.

Hayden’s 1975 “Butterfly Piece” features animals differently than either “A Plague of Starlings” or “Killing the Calves” but maintains a similar underlying theme of the assumed superiority of humans over animals and the implied sociocultural connections of this assumption as it relates to marginalized groups of humans. On the surface, this poem is simply about a collection of rare and beautiful butterflies, however, a closer examination reveals a much deeper meaning. The word “Piece” in the title can be interpreted as a reference to a piece of artwork. This suggests that the butterflies are not viewed as creatures, but rather, objects to be collected. The words “static and perfect” suggest that butterflies are the most desirable when they are unable to fly away (line 1). This is reiterated in the phrase “Jewel corpses” which similarly implies that they have a higher value in death than in life (line 2). The description of their colors as “heavy” and the alliterative use of the words “burden, break” in reference to human colors can be interpreted as an implication of the burden of beauty as well as the burden of being different from others, such as a difference in the color of one’s skin, which may be seen as both beautiful and burdensome (line 5, 7). The fact that the rare Morpho butterfly is “prized” again objectifies a living, sentient being and consequently detracts from its value as such (line 9). The fact that living creatures must be killed in order to “prettify” the world for humans reiterates the devaluation of life in and suggests that living creatures are only valuable as decorations for humans (line 11).

“Butterfly Piece” depicts anthropocentrism differently than the other two poems discussed in that animals are not seen as worthless creatures that must be eliminated for the convenience of the humans around them. Instead, butterflies are highly valued as rare and beautiful collectibles. The anthropocentric foundation is still present in this poem, however, because, despite the high intrinsic value placed on the butterflies, they are only valuable if they are dead. Their ecological purpose and usefulness are completely ignored by the humans who hunt and murder them for artistic collections. Their value is dependent upon the subjective beauty of their physical attributes in the eyes of their captors.

The comparison of butterflies to inanimate objects detracts from their value as living creatures who are worthy of respect and freedom. This elimination of the element of life from the characteristics attributed to the butterflies attempts to remove any form of sympathy that one may have for the butterflies. Hayden’s dispassionate narrator focuses on the intensity and beauty of the colors found on the butteryflies’ wings rather than their inherent value as living creatures to convey a sense that the rights of these creatures have been revoked by human hands. In addition, specific groups of humans have now assigned their own superiority over other humans by selfishly removing the butterflies from a world where everyone is free to enjoy their beauty and locking them away for the enjoyment of only a certain few.

The idea of the intrinsic value of the butterflies is reiterated at the end of the poem when Hayden speaks of the rare, blue Morpho butterfly. Despite this particular butterfly’s rarity and its spiritual connotations, humans have made the selfish decision to turn it into a collectible rather than let it be free. The ecological implication of the capture and killing of butterflies also denotes a lack of respect for the natural world, in general. If the butterflies are not given the respect they deserve, then there will be fewer of them performing the essential function of pollination and all of the natural world will eventually suffer for the self-centeredness of humanity. By this interpretation, the weight attributed to the colors of the butterflies’ wings is a metaphor for the weight of the entire natural world.

Hayden uses this specific focus on color to draw a metaphorical line between the capture, murder, and display of defenseless butterflies to the racially motivated destruction and dehumanization of people of color. This is reminiscent of the slave trade when African Americans were treated as property and traded based on their assigned value rather than as humans with inherent intrinsic value. The quote “as human/colors in our inhuman world burden, break” exemplifies the anthropocentric idea that some living beings have greater intrinsic value than others (lines 6-7). This line also suggests that a lack of sympathy and respect for living beings outside of the (specifically white) human race leads to a breakdown of society.

 As evidenced by these three examples, the use of poetic devices and animal imagery is an effective method to expose the toxic beliefs that are foundational to anthropocentric ideology and relate these beliefs to sociocultural issues involving the marginalization of people. In “Plague of Starlings” the starlings represent the struggle of marginalized groups to be seen as humans of equal value who are vital to society. The treatment of the starlings is representative of the devaluation of African American people before and during the Civil Rights Movement. “Killing the Calves” uses the greed-motivated slaughter of innocent animals as a metaphor for the genocides perpetrated by certain groups of humans on others who have been deemed less valuable, too populous, and, therefore, threatening to be allowed to live. “Butterfly Piece” utilizes the capture, murder, and display of butterflies as art to illustrate the idea that those in power determine the value of those who have been marginalized based solely on their subjective beauty, rarity, and usefulness. The lack of respect for life by those who have deemed themselves superior is evident in all three poems, as are the repercussions of this belief. Hayden uses humanity’s lack of respect for animal life as a cautionary tale of what happens when one group gains mastery and assigns its own superiority over another.

References

Boslaugh, Sarah E. “Anthropocentrism.” Anthropocentrism/Human-Centered Philosophy & Ethics, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., www.britannica.com/topic/anthropocentrism. Accessed Nov. 2023.

“Cambodia: 1975-1979.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Apr. 2018, www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/countries/cambodia/cambodia-1975.

Clapp-Itnyre, Alisa. British Hymn Books for Children, 1800-1900: Re-Tuning the History of Childhood, Routledge, London, England, 2016, pp. 181–225.

Deyo, Bryan. “Tragedy, Ecophobia, and Animality in the Anthropocene.” Affective Ecocriticism, 2018, pp. 195–212, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv75d0g8.14.

Fenner, Melissa. “The Apology of Socrates // God and the Good Life // University of Notre Dame.” God and the Good Life: The Apology of Socrates, 2023, godandgoodlife.nd.edu/digital-essays/the-apology/.

Hayden, Robert Earl. The Collected Prose of Robert Hayden. University of Michigan Press, 1984.