Fantasy Theory I & II

Chasing Moths: Studying Fantastic Literature to Develop Creative Writing

Levi Dunn

Chain bookstores indicate a certain sort of literary stigmatization. Tolkien and Lovecraft both often haunt Fiction and Genre sections, while other authors receive less luck and are bound to strictly Science Fiction & Fantasy sections. This stigmatization permeates in academia and general society. Sometimes it can feel that genre fiction is seen only as a smattering of dime-novel pulp and penny dreadful. At a workshop for science fictions and fantasy writers in late 2017 somewhere in Louisville, Kentucky, two writers expressed their sentiments on the world of the literary and the genre.

One graduate student[1] said, “I don’t think they hate genre they just don’t necessarily like it.” Her statement obviously reflected her experience in her current education. Another woman introduced herself with a litany of published genre novels, a healthy relationship with an agent and editor, and several other instances of having “made” it.  This writer expressed a distaste for the disjointedness the manuscript they reviewed began with. The reviewed explained a desire to emulate Vonnegut’s Slaughter-house Five and the successful author expressed her suggestions.

“See what he’s doing is more Literary and what your doing is more Fantasy [more Genre]. See here’s how it works: Literary ends sad. Fantasy ends happily. Genre sells better than Literary too,” she smiled. It didn’t make the reviewed feel any less devastated. Her binary of Literary as negative and Fantasy as positive is really discouraging to consider that someone with such industry experience is discrediting the ability of Fantasy to offer a literary experience. To claim that all fantasy ends happy shows that she is not connected to the ancient tradition from which fantasy stems (consider that ghosts and gods walked in humanity’s literature long before people became more interested in social dynamics as presented in realist texts) and it shows that she has yet to finish the six-part Elric of Melnibone Cycle by which the manuscript has been strongly influenced. These six short novels are anti-Tolkien fantasy which is a dark chaos in which no light rises until the end, yet, is a fell brilliance even then. Michael Moorcock does an astounding job subverting the groundwork laid by other Genre writers to defy the genres which the story was associated. This work, and those discussed in length ahead, are very valuable, but it is likely one will learn of them outside their own volition for the wonderful.

All of these complaints stem from the Western Canon. According to The Bedford Glossary of  Critical and Literary Terms “canon” in this instance means “literary works that are privileged (accorded special status) by a given culture,” in particular the Western Culture (48). The selection of works indicates that Wordsworth, a reoccurring figure with a rich discourse who serves as an emblem of the literary canon, will always be taught whereas Roger Zelazny, Harlen Ellison, and Phillip K. Dick are all unlikely to get their own university level course. As it should be, but still there are prominent literary figures who are underutilized when they provide extremely edifying experiences for scholars and a plethora of technical understanding to aspiring writers. Due to the volumes of discourse on Wordsworth and the minimal discourse on Roger Zelazny, Harlen Ellison, and Phillip K. Dick

This disconnect is disastrous to the culture of literature. On one hand there are authors publishing mounds of books and making a living that way and on the other hand you have the literary academic who wants to make a rich and complicated work of art. If one must bow to Genre Fiction to live a manageable lifestyle they are discouraged from producing works of a higher literary value. This indicates that this separation of the Genre and the Literary is a natural and well-ordered binary, but if there were more connection to the Genre in Literary course work there would be many more publishing writers producing interesting Fantasy with higher literary value. Continuing Literary Analysis will be used to better understand Fantasy fiction and develop stronger techniques for its creation, despite its frequent marginalization to the literary canon.

Four authors will be analyzed in this essay. and a quick timeline would be useful. Lovecraft and Smith both wrote around the same period, the 1920-30s. Tolkien would have likely never heard of these two authors when writing in the 40s. The final author, Rothfuss, published his first book in 2008 and has most surely read Tolkien and Lovecraft, and possibly Smith.

The essay is divided into Fantastic Philologies and Strange Structures to focus on certain elements of style at a time. The goal of all this, essaying business, is to develop a foundation upon which a fantastic mode, or a style guide, or something, may be built. While the writing beyond is analyzing the literary characteristics of the texts, my goal is to formulate a more developed theory on creating works with high literary value. Fantastic Philologies formulates a way to apply an extremely academic concept to an  extremely fantastic foundation of a certain genre. Strange Structures ties in the literary techniques of Weird fantastic fiction. This overall creates a suite of options for analyzing the literary value of a piece of Fantasy.

Fantastic Philologies

Due to this literary stigmatization, it becomes important to heighten the Literary Qualities in produced Genre Texts. It has been this author’s intention to use Literary Analysis and Research to further the quality of their Fantasy in attempts to combat this trend. Academically Fantasy discussion seems to orbit its depiction in Shakespeare and older texts such as The Odyssey and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. These are classics of fantasy and have influenced later works, but not like Tolkien. Tolkien’s Modernist text The Lord of the Rings served to add another fundamental to the fantastic canon. This art undoubtedly influenced more that Gawain ever could.

Tolkien faced similar initial stigmatization when appreciation for his work was chalked up to reader enjoyment of, “juvenile trash,” by critic Edmund Wilson (Wilson 332). One counter-point to this archaic criticism and the contemporary criticism which calls Wilson ascendant, is an inarguably literary analysis. Moving forward, the influence of Old English in the works of Modernist Fantasist J.R.R. Tolkien and contemporary Fantasist Patrick Rothfuss will be examined, providing a deeper and more complex understanding of their work.

Critics attack Tolkien’s trilogy as a simple story which has garnered extreme prominence for little explainable reason. The story is simplistic, yet its style is a laborious craft which is best explained through the “philological curiosity” which sourced it (Wilson 328). Wilson would go onto damn the trilogy, but Tolkien makes the acute observation that the general ingredients of a novel – character, plot, and setting, – are not the primary elements of this novel. “I had little hope that other people would be interested in this work,” Tolkien expressed in a letter to his editor, “especially since it was primarily linguistic in inspiration and was begun in order to provide necessary background or ‘history’ for Elvish tongues,” (Tolkien, Fellowship, viii). Understanding this begs the implementation of a specific sort of close reading which, by focusing on linguistic aesthetic, offers a greater appreciation for the text.

First let’s examine the style. Tolkien is considered the prototype for High Fantasy. The Encyclopedia of Fantasy considers the style as, “Fantasies set in OTHERWORLDS, specifically SECONDARY WORLDS and which deal with matters affecting the destinies of those worlds,” (Clute & Grant 466). Secondary worlds are those which exist separately from the primary setting the reader occupies. An example of primary setting in fantasy is Harry Potter’s British muggle world which occupies the same one we do, but the wizarding world is a secondary setting only accessible to arcane forms only. High Fantasy would be if the books were only set in the secondary, wizarding worlds, and the primary world we exist in is unrelated.

Tolkien’s setting is Middle-earth, which is a world long before an industrialization is set to occur and make it far less magical. In the following examination, we begin with middle-earth, seeking the influence of Old English, the originator of Modern English dating before the seventh century, on High Fantasy (Gramley 20). This includes suffix and prefixes and will be able to provide certain conclusions that literary critics would not have made without this focused form of close reading. One of the first secondary settings to be established is based on an obvious allusion to Old English literature, and will begin the examination of The Lord of the Rings.

The setting of Tolkien’s trilogy is Middle-earth. Notice the term is still connected by the use of a hyphen. This is a sign of its origin, the Old English term Middangeard which translates to “the middle dwelling (between heaven and hell), the earth, world,” (Bosworth). This choice to keep “middle” and “earth” connected by use of punctuation displays a conscious effort of establishing Old English influence in the novel, but it is far from the last trace of its prominence in this triptych.

A figure which is predominately intertwined in The Lord of the Rings is the wizard Gandalf. In Old English Influences on The Lord of the Rings by Docent of Folkloristics at Finnish University of Turku, Clive Tolley identifies Gandalf’s name stemming from two words from two specific Germanic languages. The first is the Old Norse word gandr. According to Tolley this stems from “pre-Christian Scandanavian religion, the gandr was a sort of spirit that helped special ‘seers’…” (Tolley 54). The second half is based off the Old English word álfr meaning elf. Tolley also denotes that it originates from “The Catalogue of Dwarfs…and [álfr] appears amongst a list of dwarves.” (Tolley 54). The terms “gandr,” and “alfr” merges to form “Gandrálfr,” which Tolkien then turned into Gandalf. This is an obvious demonstration of his inspiration via this ancient name (Tolley 54). Two interesting things exist in this linguistic understanding. We find in this list there is an elf amongst dwarves, of which in the trilogy Gandalf is neither. One would do well to notice that in The Hobbit Gandalf guides Bilbo and a company of dwarves note the similarity in sound provided by the C in company and catalogue, as well and then to a more multicultural lot when he leads Frodo to the elven city of Rivendell in The Fellowship. This shows a transition from dwarves to elves, while maintaining a connection to dwarves in the character of Gimli, who is a dwarf.

And where Gandalf serves as the guiding spirit for the idealistic characters, his counterpart Saruman is the primary source of conflict as he has decided to bring Middle-earth under new management, specifically his management. Interestingly, this work was published during the second world war and elements of fascism appeared in obvious places however according to Kirk’s essay “I Would Have Written in Elvish: Language, Fiction, and The Lord of the Rings, “Tolkien has repeatedly insisted the trilogy is not allegorical” (1). This bolsters this critics belief that this work was never meant to be evaluated on its merits as a novel, but as a vehicle for constructed languages. These constructed languages have constructed connections, for example learning of his master Sauron tells us much about the servant Saruman.

Sauron, who started this whole ring business, is a standard evil bad guy. His origin, in brief, is similar to Satan in the Christianity. He rebelled against his creator and began to work against him by singing a disharmonious song. Tolley notes that Sauron and Saruman stem from “the Old English base word searu” meaning “‘cunning’ or ‘treacherous’ ” (55). It is here we see that Sauron is a traitor to his creator and Saruman to Gandalf, as he is eventually placed under the will of Sauron. Here Tolkien applies his philological skills to denote that both these characters are betrayers. Again, with the compounding of searu with man indicates that Saruman is below and serving Sauron. An understanding that might be drawn from this involves the examination of this power dynamic as relating to an atmosphere of negative thought and a world leader. Sauron does not exist physically on Middle-earth, save for a large burning eye but that is itself stationary, but acts through a bipedal conduit via Saruman. While allegory was discouraged by the author, one could view Sauron as the platonic form of fascism and Saruman as the fascist world leader oppressing various peoples. If we examine the term searu” meaning “‘cunning’ or ‘treacherous’” as the main principles of our evil overlord trope then it stands a good chance, especially with this being so entrenched in the facist states of Germany and Italy which were so near to England, where the novel was written between 1937 and 1949, and would have surely been aware of the horrors performed during the systematic mass extinction of human life,

And much in the way that fascists have spread misinformation and propaganda to discredit enemies and spread their malicious agendas, Saruman sends Grima Wormtongue to the horselords of Rohan. Grima is meant to corrupt Théoden who presides over Medulseld. Tolley makes the following observations regarding the naming of these characters and places: Grima means masked (3/9), Théoden means Lord (42), and Medulseld means mead hall, (42) These are obvious demonstrations of Old English influence in this work.

Rohan, where Théoden reigns, is based off of the Anglo-Saxon England who claimed Britain in the fifth century. The only variation to their society is the presence of horses. This, Tolley claims, is an allusion to the first kings of this period, “Hengest and Horsa. These names mean ‘stallion’ and ‘horse’” (Tolley 42). He also notes the term “eoh” which is the Old English suffix indicating horses. This explains Théoden’s daughter being named Eowyn which means “Equine joy” (Tolley 40). This demonstrates important references to ancient history and art which raises the literary aesthetics present in this novel.

The final point involving The Lord of the Rings is related not specifically to Tolkien’s use of Old English but to his various tiers of language used within his own constructed languages, which he began as an undergraduate at Merton and worked on after the trilogy’s publication until his death. These tiers are identified by Kirk as going from basic ‘hobbit’ language use, which is simple and easy to read, to the more ornate, ritual, use of sentences involving singularly ornate constructed languages.  For an example, Kirk brings up the inscription on the titular ring.

The couplet on the ring is as follows “One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them, One Rings to bring them all, and in darkness bind them” (Tolkien, Fellowship, 285). It is then astutely pointed out by Kirk that it is later read aloud in Black Speech , the least developed of all of Tolkien’s languages. The first line reads as follows ‘Ash nazg durbatuluk, ash nazg gimbatul” (Tolkien, Fellowship, 285).

By giving the reader the ring in modern English they can quickly deduce what it is that is being said in this highly inapproachable tongue. And one thing they might conjure is the image of the Nazgul or Ringwraiths. If we notice it seems Ash means One and Nazg means Ring. This indicates that the “gul” means “wraith,” giving us the “common speech” term “Ringwraith” as relating to the Nazgul.

It is elements like this that, much like the twelve pages of walking one encounters in the series, are not necessary but add to the atmosphere of fantasy. Unlike the twelve pages of walking, this enhances the atmosphere instead of prolonging it. It is due to Tolkien’s scholarship of language, not his skills as a novelist, that these literary contributions were possible.

Similarly, it is interesting that the entire power struggle centers around a ring with a couplet inscribed on it being taken either to its destruction or to an evil entity, especially understanding that for its author The Lord of the Rings was a story which served as a vehicle for language. Those two options seem to magnetize the ring, destruction or subservience. If returned to its master, then all hope is lost. If destroyed all hope is regained. This may stem from the feelings of dystopian feeling Englanders felt at that time when commonly their lives and the lives of those they knew were so very likely to be extinguished.

While a plethora of research exists on Tolkien, who clearly wrote in this fantastic style and is considered by many as the pioneer of high fantasy, this is not true of other fantasists who do not have the privilege of existence in the “literary fiction” section of most bookstores. It is disturbing that this style is distinguished, as in the case of Tolkien, as literary art, and for others just “genre fiction.”

While one can appreciate the originator of any genre it is impossible to deny that as time persists others will come to obtain a greater mastery of it. Patrick Rothfuss demonstrates a high fantasy which is undoubtedly more artful and powerful, because unlike Tolkien, it was written as more than a philological experiment. Doing the same as before with Tolkien we will move to examine Rothfuss’s The Kingkiller Chronicle and the influence Old English has had on it.

Unlike The Lord of the Rings this cycle is still incomplete with the final book The Doors of Stone currently in development. I will be focusing on the protagonist, one antagonist and the organization they belong to, the protagonist’s romantic interest, an addictive drug, and dragons.

The primary character Kvothe serves to highlight the literary focus of this story. Rothfuss explains his name is pronounced similarly to the term “quothe” (Rothfuss Ask the Author). Quothe which served as a past tense form of said, is used to demonstrate the focus on language as well as foreshadow Kvothe’s greatest ability is in “naming.” Naming is the ability to alter something in reality by speaking its true name, which have since fallen out of knowledge. Which sort of lines up to this form of analysist. So for example, we’ll work with Tolkien’s searu. Kovothe knows the words, “cunning,” and “treacherous,” but if he speaks them he merely says those words. However, if he names he pulls this ancient meaning from some magical energy. The name of treachery in the Name of the Wind may be something like searu. Naming this would call upon a power which relates to that primordial phrase. The first entry to the cycle is titled The Name of the Wind, after all. While tomes could, and should, be written in analyzing Kvothe, let us now move to Cinder.

Cinder is the antagonist who incited the rising action of the novel. He is described in Chapter Sixteen of The Name of the Wind. “I remember him as clearly as I remember my own mother, sometimes better. His face was narrow and sharp, with the perfect beauty of porcelain.” (Rothfuss, Name, 126) Notice the sharpness indicated in Cinder’s description. This may explain why cin means “chin” in Old English. (Bosworth). This conclusion, I admit, is a bit of a stretch, but by examining the meaning of the name we are able to witness a new association with physicality involving a character who has little given description.

Still, playing with the chin connection, we are granted a sharp image to the description of the man who aided in slaughtering Kvothe’s parents, and entire family – which consisted of a large theater troupe – before informing Kvothe why. “His voice was quiet, cold, and sharp. ‘Someone’s parents,’ he said, “have been singing entirely the wrong sort of songs.’” (Rothfuss. Name, 127). Sharp is amongst the three descriptions skillfully woven into this scene regarding Cinder’s voice. This continues to bolster our meaning derived from the study of this linguistic aesthetic.

Cinder’s group is The Chandrian. They are not huge fans of people knowing their existence, which is the main reason so much mystery obfuscates them. Many signs herald their arrival, and amongst them the most iconic is blue fire. Chapter one-hundred and twenty-eight, “Names” ends with a poem describing which members bring what signs and the first line will be sufficient for our purposes. “Cyphus bears the blue flame,” (Rothfuss, Wise Man’s, 940). Examining this and the Middle English term chaundeler, which means candlemaker we find a clear allusion to ancient language in the ornate design of this art (OED).

Another character who is purposefully mysterious is Kvothe’s main romantic influence, Denna. The following interpretations are obviously just that, interpretations, but it appears that the following application of Old English studies is able to provide a new atmosphere of meaning in this monstrous series. Den is the Old English word for “the lair of a beast.” (Bosworth.) Denna provides a distraction for Kvothe and constantly leads him to do things which almost sacrifice his positions and things he had worked for. This presents a danger to him much as a beast would, but it is a danger he cares little for when with Denna.

Another non traditional beast exists in the form of Denner resin. This drug contains an extremely high addiction rate. It is known to lead women to prostitution and is analogous to heroin. While Kvothe is never tempted to consume this substance, it does represent another dangerous monster. Yet again we see, Den in the naming. Yet again we see a beast offered in the protagonist’s periphery.

It seems that the use of Den specifically serves to indicate names with a certain level of dangerous appeal. When Kvothe happens upon a Denner resin refinery tucked away in the secluded woods, he discovers another beast with less appeal and more danger: the Draccus, which is the old English word for Dragon (Bosworth). This dragon is less Beowful and more komodo. It lacks wings, but still breathes gouts of searing death. This grounds a creature usually completely fantastic in a more realistic foundation, both linguistically and aesthetically.

While one could make the argument that this style of close reading was not what either author intended for their work, that is not why examining the linguistic influence is important. As scholars of literature we should not be focused on what an author expected of us regarding literary analysis. Any form of criticism that derives greater meaning from an already existent work of literary art is valid and enhances the literary discourse.

Tolkien and Rothfuss share one thing and that is an artful approach to a specific style, even if decades removed. While the works of Thomas Pynchon, William Faulkner, Oscar Wilde, Emily Dickenson, Bernard Shaw, and Nathanial Hawthorne are on the shelves surrounding me, I am unable to discredit an entire mode of literary art as “genre fiction.”

One may feel still that Fantasy is lesser than Literary Fiction, even after this demonstration of the talented craft involved in these works. To those consider this, “Fantasy existed before Lit Fic and if you deny those roots, you are pruning yourself so closely you can’t help but wither and die.” (Waddell) Patrick Rothfuss, Professor at University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point and Best-Selling Author, said that.

Still, even sharp readers should not be expected to easily spot Old English toponyms as it would require quite a lot of slowing down, referencing an Old English Dictionary which is often difficult for those that are skilled in its use, and then sifting through countless definitions. Its not a reader friendly technique if understanding that archaic language inhibits the continued reading. Reading should be optionally difficult, but by infusing these meanings into characters and settings the author allows for this in-depth analysis, but the technical structure of the work should be studied to allow for a flowing and successful narrative.

Strange Structures: Beginning to Establish a Weird Literary Theory

Lovecraft stands out as a prominent figure in Fantastic Fiction due to his combination of Science Fiction and Horror wrapped up in beautifully romantic prose. Another author is overlooked in the shadow of Lovecraft. Clark Ashton Smith was an early twentieth century poet and writer from Auburn California. One of three prominent contributors to Weird Tales, which served as a nexus for Smith, Robert E. Howard (Author of Conan) and H.P. Lovecraft, Smith’s works has gone unappreciated in their shadows; however, this is changing as recent appreciation has risen. Such recent criticisms considers the historical context of the writer, specifically his mentorship under renowned poet George Sterling, and his reluctant defense of Romance in the face of popular Realism which stemmed from his dedication to Aestheticism. Smith and Lovecraft were both authors of Weird fiction and preceding to examine their aesthetic theory writers can discover how each establishes the Weird atmosphere, providing textual evidence from prominent long lasting texts to enhance our understanding of this fantastic literary tradition and gain tools for their own personal writing.

The Encyclopedia of Fantasy defines Weird Fiction as “a term used loosely to describe Fantasy, Supernatural Fiction and Horror tales embodying transgressive material: where motifs of Thinning and the Uncanny predominate, and where subject matter like Occultism and Satanism may be central, and Doppelgangers thrive.” This definition is useful to set the table, but the best definition is constructed from analysis.

In “Notes on Writing Weird Fiction,” Lovecraft provides an excellent sense of what he seeks to achieve. Listing his prime motivation, the number of Weird story styles that he has seen, and the elements that aid in attaining the uncanny.

Examining the mode Lovecraft reveals “one of my strongest and most persistent wishes being to achieve momentarily, the illusion of some strange suspension or violation of natural law which forever imprison us and frustrate our curiosity about the infinite cosmic spaces beyond the radius of our sight and analysis.” (Lovecraft “Notes” 257).

Noting four distinct forms of Weird fiction, HPL, identifies the following: Stories either establishing an atmosphere, “expressing a pictoral conception, expressing a general situation or condition, legend or intellectual conception, and” those “explaining a definite tableau or specific dramatic situation or climax.” (Lovecraft “Notes” 257).

Furthermore H.P. Lovecraft purports all Weird fiction has five distinct elements:

“(a) Some basic underlying horror or abnormality – condition, entity,etc, (b) the general effects or bearings of the horror, (c) the mode of manifestation – object embodying the horror and phenomena observed -, (d) the types of fear-reaction pertaining to the horror, and (e) the specific effects of the horror in relation to the given set of conditions.” (Lovecraft “Notes” 257).

Finally, Lovecraft emphasizes the central element as the “Marvel” (Lovecraft 257). The constructed horror that defies the mundanity of normalcy. Arguing that carefully one must build tension leading to the marvel, and that it should outshine all other elements of the general literary form he indicates that things such as setting, character and plot are secondary in the shadow of Lovecraft’s atmospheric Other as it emerges in the Real.

“The Call of Cthulhu,” was penned “probably in august or September 1926” (Joshi 392). This story serves as one of the most prominent texts of the early twentieth century cosmicist – Cosmicism being a literary philosophy emphasizing the cosmic insignificance of humanity – are replete with examples of the Weird. In defining these elements, we will examine the concept of the Marvel, five weird elements and attempt to identify the style of weird tale it adheres to.

Beginning is a brief story summation: After his uncle, a renowned professor, passes the nameless narrator must sort his things. In doing so he uncovers strange things that connect disassociated knowledge to provide a worth-while horror story (Lovecraft “Cthulhu”).

Several sub-marvels filter into a larger marvel, the first of which is the Bas-relief featured in “The Horror in Clay,” the first section. It’s described as having present “the vagaries of cubism and futurism” yet maintains “the cryptic regularity which lurks in prehistoric writing.” (Lovecraft “Cthulhu” 383). This object creates an artistic dissonance in its design. Modern yet infinitely older than would seem possible. This metaphor is not a far cry between Lovecraft’s own baroque literary style and his existence in his contemporary writing community.

Secondly the next sub-marvel is Wilcox’s transient dream. Finding the writing of the dead listed an encounter with a “thin, dark young man of neurotic and excited aspect…” (Lovecraft “Cthulhu” 383). Thin young Henry Wilcox has called upon the late professor’s knowledge of archeology to aid in identifying odd hieroglyphs etched in the bas-relief. The professor reprimands Wilcox for this not being an object of archeology. The professor is able to recall the youth’s exact response being “‘It is new, indeed, for I made it last night in a dream of strange cities; and dreams are older than brooding Tyre, or the contemplative Sphinx, or garden-girdled Babylon.’” (Lovecraft “Cthulhu” 384).

Identifying not only its origination in subconscious dreams, by referencing ancient cities and identifying the sphinx as a chimeric guardian figure we see great foreshadowing as the bas-relief is describes as featuring an image of Cthulhu describes as “An octopus, a dragon and a human caricature.” (Lovecraft “Cthulhu” 383).

Afterwards the professor lists a “dream of great Cyclopean cities of titan blocks and sky-flung monoliths, all dripping with green ooze and sinister with latent horror.” (384 Lovecraft). Here the transience of the dream becomes obvious, moving from the young artist to the mature professor, spreading like a psychic virus.

The dream and the letters held therein “Cthulhy fhtagn” (Lovecraft 384) recall forgotten memories to the professor who begins questioning Wilcox about his potential involvement in cults, promising silence if admitted into “some widespread mystical or paganly body.” (Lovecraft “Cthulhu” 385). Deciding Wilcox is unaware towards this development who moves away from it.

Later Wilcox is taken from his home, having gone insane. Nine days pass until he awoke normal, no memories remaining of recent realities or dream. His recovery heralds the ceasing of his strange dreams, yet the professor has been polling others to acquire a larger sample of strange dreams. Similar dreams were found during the nine days of Wilcox’s madness, specifically in artists. These artists share dreams much stronger than Wilcox’s and the nameless narrator finds more evidence from press clippings from that period displaying cases of similar mental instability. These clippings connect similar happenings across the world. This psychic virus is a global epidemic.

The next section depicts the tale of an investigator, Legrasse, which expounds the grand scale of the Marvel. Depicting a cult in Louisiana and the police dealings with them regarding strange reports. The only element this adds to the marvel is the old man Castro who speaks of “sunken, star-born, Old Ones and their coming reign.” (Lovecraft 401) but does little more than that and demonstrate Lovecraft’s unfortunate antiquation and the unfortunate racist predilections.

This careful buildup leads into the eponymous caller, the true Marvel. The section titled The Madness from the Sea is the stories climax where dissociated knowledge draws the narrator back into the investigation he had for months abandoned. His curator friend’s museum contains information regarding a derelict ship rescued and its surviving crew’s story. A story set in the period that Wilcox was experiencing severe bouts of madness. Detailing the Norwegian sailor Johannsen, the first night of Wilcox’s madness, “they raised and landed on a small island, although none is known to exist in that part of the ocean; and six of the men somehow died ashore…” (Lovecraft “Cthulhu” 400).

Desiring closure he decides to attempt completing the investigation. Johansen’s wife gives him a manuscript. This details the final, grand, marvel.

“The corpse-city of R’lyeh, built in measureless eons behind history by great Cthulhu and his hordes, hidden in green slimy vaults and sending out…the thoughts that spread fear to the dreams of the sensitive and call imperiously to the faithful to come on a pilgrimage of liberation and restoration.” (Lovecraft 403).

This realm is one of non-Euclidean vague formlessness. Each explorer in Johannsen’s group is overcome with fear and in their inspection of the city they opened an acre large door, with little effort, yet Lovecraft maintains the uncanny atmosphere by the “phantasy of prismatic distortion” allowing movement “in a diagonal way, so that all the rules of matter and perspective seemed upset.” (Lovecraft 405). Produced is the “gelatinous green immensity…” of Cthulhu who emerges into “that poison city of madness.” (Lovecraft 405).

Maintaining realism in the piece Lovecraft has a character inherit their family’s problems, and by connecting the events of Wilcox’s madness and the emergence of this abomination he heightens the impossible by associating it with the possible. The sub-marvels possibly lead one to suspect that The Marvel is the city and its alien inhabitant, but that is still a strand off. The Marvel is Earth’s alien foundation and the necessary understanding of human insignificance.

As the last two survivors escape on their stolen yacht, one “looked back and went mad” (Lovecraft 406). Johansen is left and while being pursued by the massive thing he is bold in turning and driving the nose of the boat full on into the abominations face, causing an explosion of flesh and a miasmatic cloud. Peering back Johannsen sees “nameless sky-spawn was nebulously recombining in its hateful original form” (Lovecraft 406). The nameless narrator ends by acknowledging that there will come a time when things greater than humanity reign.

Identifying the style of Weird tale is difficult, but I would purport that due to the narrators strictly secondary involvement with the marvel, it can be called an atmospheric piece elaborating on a “pictorial concept”, fusing two of the styles Lovecraft believed existent. (Lovecraft 257).

HPL’s Weird elements exist in this story. The mysterious death of the professor and its leading to the Bas-relief frames the underlying horror of dissociated knowledge. Horrific effects are displayed in Wilcox’s transient dream. Mode of manifestation is the rising of R’lyeh and the directly related psychic virus. The fear reaction is madness, displayed by the sailor looking backwards and going insane. The specific reaction is the horror pursues, is injured, and retreats to regenerate (Lovecraft 257).

Lovecraft’s story is Weird because of these present literary techniques; however, that is not claiming this is the definitive mode of establishing the Weird in one’s own writing. Examining Clark Ashton Smith will broaden our understanding of the Weird atmosphere.

Smith’s aesthetic theory is important in developing a literary form due to it lacking the stigmatization of the fantasy marketing genre, and by examining textual evidence we can establish a larger literary theory.

Smith demonstrates his obsession with the exotic and a love of language. “Notes on the Aesthetics of Fantasy,” identifies four fundamental components of a Smith piece and provides an adequate rubric by which Smith’s “Weirdness” can be analyzed (Wolfe 420). These elements being: Purple prose, establishment of an Alternative Reality, presence of Distanced Thresholds, and the subversion of the Monomyth.

The Monomyth, as established by Joseph Campbell, permeates through almost all writing, myths and fiction alike. It is a hero-arch that takes an ordinary person into a fabulous world, where they overcome trials and receive boons that they return home with (Campbell).

Alternative Reality and Distanced Thresholds are concepts best explained through the aesthetic analysis. Alternative Realities are the existent realms presented in fiction. Smith established these alien worlds with his Series of Impossibilities:

“My own conscious ideal has been to delude the reader into accepting an impossibility, or series of impossibilities, by means of a sort of verbal black magic, in the achievement of which I make use of prose-rhythm, metaphor, simile, tone-color, counter-point, and other stylistic resources, like a sort of incantation. (Smith To Lovecraft).

These impossible worlds exist independently of the real world, containing their own rules of reality and developed cultures. This allows the audience to encounter social issues in a context that rids them of earthly prejudices. Smith’s Alternative worlds were filled with aesthetics and could be described as purple.

The developed cultures also serve The Distanced Threshold. The use of secondary-setting poetry, “The Song of Xeethras,” was an instance of this as the poem is what starts “The Dark Eidolon,” and establishes that this world has a history to it, much like Tolkien’s books serve to express elvish histories. By creating a believable secondary world that exists in a closed circuit outside of mundanity the reader can more fully experience the situations in these fantastic contexts. A greater example of this is by setting his fantasy on earth in a far-flung future he removes any notions from the current human civilization to provide a completely new setting. “On Zothique, the last continent of Earth, the sun no longer shone with the whiteness of its prime, but was dim and tarnished as if with a vapor of blood.” (Smith “Eidolon” 205). This renders the reader more vulnerable to the specific situations depicted in the work.

“The Dark Eidolon,” is a revenge story and possibly the most prominent of Smith’s prose. The story accounts the peasant Narthos, his transformation into the feared wizard Namirrha, and his plot against his forgetful tormentor Zotulla, who rose from prince to emperor. Each character goes through a transformation, gaining power. Narthos goes into the desert and makes a pact with the evil god Thassidion. Zotulla crosses this threshold by murdering his father and demanding his inherited empire.

The monomyth is the hero arch that is present in most myths and by extension literary art, where a hero leaves the mundane reality to face an “Other World” and return with some form of beneficial boon. Smith subverted this in three ways that directly pertain to the subversion of the triumph over nature. Smith’s characters are never benefited from their experience in the alternative world (Wolfe 419-420).

The first subversion appears when the characters never return to the mundane world, lost forever. Secondly. the characters are shattered by their experience, and forever changed. Thirdly, Smith’s characters cross the threshold and unable to resist the appeal of the world of Aestheticism, Wolfe argues, are more pleased by their new existence. (Wolfe 420). This establishes a unique Aesthetic theory that works to validate his work as literary art.

The monomyth is still present in Smith’s The Dark Eidolon, but as the story contains two main characters it applies differently to both Namirrha and Zotulla. The secondary world, for Namirrha, where he receives his powers is the desert where he learns magic. Zotulla murders his own father and inherits the empire, but Zotulla’s Other world comes when Namirrha “bids the emperor and all his court to a great feast on the afternoon of the morrow.” (Smith “Eidolon” 212).

And while both enter their other world – Nahmirra for Arcane power, Zotulla to reestablish his dominance as emperor – it ultimately leads to their downfall. Nahmirrah summons his “macrocosmic” horses and destroys the empire, then draws Zotulla’s spirit from his body and enters the emperor’s body. He then attempts to slay the disembodied emperor’s favorite concubine but with a dash of divine intervention, Thassidion, the devil Namirrha received his power from, allows Zotulla’s spirit to save his concubine. Namirrha’s soul is returned to his body when his host dies, and he awakes “with a dire confusion in his mind and a partial forgetfulness.” (Smith “Eidolon” 224). “his eyes were drawn by the diamond mirror…” “:and going to the mirror, he saw therin the face that he knew no longer for his own.” (Smith “Eidolon” 224-225). Mistaking his own face for the disembodied emperor he begins attacking the mirror until his magic sword breaks. “And above her laughter, and above the cursings of Namirrha,there came anon like the rumblings of swift-driven storm the thunder made by the macrocosmic stallions…to trample down the one house that they had spared aforetime.” (Smith “Eidolon” 225) This subverts the monomyth by having the beneficial boon, Namirrha’s magic, lead to his own destruction and Zotulla’s never having the chance to return from his Other world.

The Purpleness of the prose can be elaborated on as prose that is unnecessarily ornate. In almost any passage existent in Smith’s body of content there exists an ultraviolet gloss, but let us look at the last quote in the above paragraph. “And above her laughter, and above the cursings of Namirrha, there came anon like the rumblings of swift-driven storm the thunder made by the macrocosmic stallions…to trample down the one house that they had spared aforetime.” (Smith 225). While able to be truncated, this statement provides ornateness in its “macrocosmic stallions” and the use of the term “anon” is not an item we frequent in fantastic prose.

Looking back, we can identify the Weird as a transgressive form of fantastic or supernatural literature that works to establish a form of marvel, whether a single item situated in the mundane or an entire reality distinct and developed aside from the primary reality in which “reality” sits. The weird stories that Lovecraft identifies are overall restrictive and while valid in the time of its writing, either needs to be adapted to modernity or removed entirely from the study of the style. Both writers use an excessive language that is surely baroque and agreeably unnecessary, but as it is present in both writer’s style, it must be concluded as necessary for the traditional establishment of the atmosphere, which we have established as the fundamental purpose of weird literature. These stories were penned almost a century prior and still stand erect against the decay of time and social movements. Works that will doubtlessly be fundamental texts for any writer wishing to take up this tradition.

Both saw atmosphere as the end by which their texts are the means. This is where both divert to reach their goals separately. Lovecraft’s Marvel can be compared to the chain of impossibilities, where as there is a single impossibility situated concerning Lovecraft, Smith’s form makes use of an elaborate line of marvels that make then entire piece a marvel – displaying a reliance on sub-marvels in both. Distance is featured in both works as The Call of Cthulhu’s nameless narrator finds all his horror in the passages of newspapers and posthumous notes and the protagonist’s in The Dark Eidolon exist inside of a world separate from ours that is distant through its use of developed alternative realities.

Both writers have been noted as being on the polarity of modernism (Connors). Key elements described in Lovecraft’s literary theory are present in both works, the underlying horror, the effects it enacts, the mode of manifestation, fear reaction, and the specific effects pertaining to the specific conditions. These were demonstrated for the Call of Cthulhu, but in The Dark Eidolon we can quickly identify them. The underlying horror, the revenge of the wizard. The effects being the erecting of his demon-built abode, and the ushering of Zotulla to his feast. Fear reaction is Zotulla’s compulsion to do what Namirha asks, even when the father he murdered is serving him his wine. The effects in the specific instance is that Namirrha tries to possess Zotulla’s unoccupied body, the demon intervenes, and Zotulla is lost in the afterlife, Namirrha goes mad and the macrocosmic horses finishes the ruination of Zotulla’s empire.

And while these two “literary giants” (Bertlesky) are important to our current atmosphere of superb fiction they, like all people, had their flaws. As Noah Bertlesky Where Should We Bury the Dead Literary Giants, pointed out, Lovecraft was a terrible racist and while it has been claimed he lightened up in his later years key thematic elements in his writing are influenced by this awful xenophobia acting to alienate a huge potential readership. Smith, one could claim, provides what Lovecraft does in a more artistic, quicker paced, and less racist manner; however, there exists a repetition in Smith’s work as most of his short fiction supplemented ideas founded in his earlier poetry.

Lovecraft’s own examination of his style was immensely useful, if nothing more it served to enter the literary mind of this icon. While most of his notes were extremely valuable his description of the four forms of weird story was ultimately useless. It is unknown whether these four stories were the ultimate forms of weird writing in his day, and time has brought more kinds into the fold or if this is another projection of a man who rarely left the tiny corner of the globe he was born in.

This essay, while serving as best it can to highlight these elements in their importance does exist as a piece of writing itself and its writer is much more prone to Romanticism than Realism which explains a preference for Smith over Lovecraft. Able to recognize that this is based only on personal preference there is still a huge value in Realism as it examines the ultimate truths present in this reality, even if it often forgets that the human imagination is just as much part of reality as the concrete existence they work to examine.

Ultimately this provides a suite of options for the fantasist to use and demonstrates the extremely literary stylings of these four authors in two separate ways. In the first half we discover sources of inspiration to add depth to fantastic worldbuilding, and in the latter section we see two variations of establishing the same concept through manipulation of style. Something that these four authors teach us is the benefit of defying standards to establish something new and marvelous. These styles rose from unique individuals: the neurotic and xenophobic Lovecraft; Smith, the self-taught poet and fantasist who only left home once; Tolkien, established linguistics professor at Oxford who pioneered the Fantasy styles popular today; and Rothfuss who has infused a great breath of fresh literary air into the style. These authors understood that literature stems from formulaic processes, and while it is important to study writing, a writer is equally responsible for cultivating their own unique voice. This voice is one of the most defining and outstanding elements in a piece of writing. One does not read for the smattering of characters going through a series of events and interacting with a hodgepodge of settings. Much like the monomyth one dares to read to enter the world produced by a writer in hopes it provides you with some boon with which they may return.

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