13 Graded potentials

Learning Objectives

After reading this section, you should be able to-

  • Define and describe depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, and threshold.
  • Define excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) and interpret graphs showing the voltage vs. time relationship of an EPSP and an IPSP
  • Explain temporal and spatial summation of synaptic potentials.
  • Explain how a single neurotransmitter may be excitatory at one synapse and inhibitory at another

Graded Potentials

Local changes in the membrane potential away from resting levels are called graded potentials and are usually associated with opening gated channels on the membrane a neuron. The type and amount of change in the membrane potential is determined by the ion that crosses the membrane, how many ions cross and for how long. Graded potentials can be of two sorts, either they are depolarizing (above resting membrane potential) or hyperpolarizing (below resting membrane potential) (Figure 9.1). Depolarizing graded potentials are often the result of Na+ or Ca2+ entering the cell. Both of these ions have higher concentrations outside the cell than inside; because they have a positive charge, when they move into the cell the membrane becomes less negative inside relative to the outside. Hyperpolarizing graded potentials can be caused by K+ leaving the cell or Cl– entering the cell. The membrane becomes more negative if a positive charge moves out of a cell or if a negative charge enters the cell. Graded potentials are transient and are dissipated as they move away from the site of the initial stimulus.

When ion channels are left open longer or more channels are opened (for the same ion), the stimulus affecting a neuron is bigger. A “bigger stimulus” occurs due to a more painful stimulus, a heavier load, a brighter light etc. These larger stimuli induce larger graded potentials of longer duration in neurons and can be either depolarizing or hyperpolarizing.

The graph has membrane potential, in millivolts, on the X axis, ranging from negative 90 to positive 30. Time is on the X axis. The left half of the plot line is labeled the depolarizing graded potential. The plot has four progressively larger peaks, with each starting at the resting membrane potential of negative 70. The lowest peak reaches to about negative 65 and is narrow in width, as this represents a small stimulus that causes a small depolarization of the cell membrane. The second peak reaches to about negative 60 but is still narrow. This represents a larger stimulus causing more depolarization. The third peak also reaches to negative 60, but is about twice as wide as the other two peaks. This represents a stimulus of longer duration, which causes a longer lasting depolarization. However, this stimulus is not greater in strength than the previous stimulus. The rightmost peak among the depolarizing graded potentials reaches above the threshold line to about negative 51. This represents a stimulus of sufficient strength to trigger an action potential. The right half of the plot is labeled the hyperpolarizing graded potential. The plot line in this half begins at the resting potential of negative 70, but then drops to more negative membrane potentials. The first peak drops to negative 75 EV, the second peak drops to negative 80 EV and the third peak drops to negative 88 EV. These peaks represent a stimulus that results in hyperpolarization, which is triggered by the activation of specific ion channels in the cell membrane.
Figure 9.1 – Graded Potentials: Graded potentials are temporary changes in the membrane voltage, the characteristics of which depend on the size of the stimulus. Some types of stimuli cause depolarization of the membrane, whereas others cause hyperpolarization. It depends on the specific ion channels that are activated in the cell membrane.

For the unipolar cells of sensory neurons—both those with free nerve endings and those within encapsulations—graded potentials develop in the dendrites and influence the generation of an action potential in the axon of the same cell. This is called a generator potential. For other sensory receptor cells which are not neurons, such as taste cells or photoreceptors of the retina, graded potentials in receptor cell membranes result in the release of neurotransmitters at synapses with sensory neurons. This is called a receptor potential, and we will consider this type of graded potential during a discussion of the special senses.

A postsynaptic potential (PSP) is the graded potential in the dendrites or cell body of a neuron that is receiving synapses from other cells. Postsynaptic potentials can be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing. Depolarization in a postsynaptic potential is called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) because it causes the membrane potential to move toward threshold. Hyperpolarization in a postsynaptic potential is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) because it causes the membrane potential to move away from threshold.

Summation

All types of graded potentials will result in small changes (either depolarization or hyperpolarization) in the voltage of a membrane. These changes can lead to the neuron reaching threshold if the changes add together, or summate. The combined effects of different types of graded potentials are illustrated in Figure 9.2. If the total change in voltage that reaches the initial segment (or trigger zone) is a positive 15 mV, meaning that the membrane depolarizes from -70 mV (resting membrane potential) to -55 mV (threshold), then the graded potentials will result in the initiation of an action potential.

Graded potentials summate at a specific location at the beginning of the axon to initiate the action potential, namely the initial segment. For sensory neurons, the initial segment is directly adjacent to the dendritic endings (since the cell body is located more proximally). For all other neurons, the initial segment of the axon is found at the axon hillock and it is where summation takes place. These locations have a high density of voltage-gated Na+ channels that initiate the depolarizing phase of the action potential and is often referred as the trigger zone.

Summation can be spatial or temporal, meaning it can be the result of multiple graded potentials occurring simultaneously at different locations on the neuron (spatial), or all at the same place but in rapid succession (temporal). Spatial and temporal summation can act together, as well. Since graded potentials dissipated with distance and time, summation is the total change in voltage due to all spatial and temporal graded potentials that reach the trigger zone or initial segment at each moment.

This graph has membrane potential, in millivolts, on the X axis, ranging from negative 90 to negative 40. Time is on the X axis. The plot line is moving up and down between the resting membrane potential of minus 70 EV and the threshold potential of minus 55 EV. An EPSP causes the plot line to move higher, closer to the threshold potential. An IPSP causes the plot line to move lower, further away from the threshold potential. Toward the right side of the graph, the neuron receives an EPSP that pushes the membrane potential above the threshold, triggering an action potential that causes the plot line to quickly rise above positive 30 EV. The plot line then quickly drops back below minus 70 EV but then gradually increases back to minus 70. A picture of a neuron indicates that excitatory post synaptic potentials are commonly provided by synapses on the neuron’s dendrites. Inhibitory post synaptic potentials are commonly provided by synapses near the neuron’s axon hillock.
Figure 9.2 – Postsynaptic Potential Summation: The result of summation of postsynaptic potentials is the overall change in the membrane potential. At point A, several different excitatory postsynaptic potentials add up to a large depolarization. At point B, a mix of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials result in a different end result for the membrane potential.

Adapted from Anatomy & Physiology by Lindsay M. Biga et al, shared under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, chapter 12.

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